What Is the Definition of Passing for White

What is the definition of passing, or passing for white? Simply put, passing occurs when members of a racial, ethnic, or religious group present themselves as belonging to another such group. Historically, people have passed for a variety of reasons, from gaining  more social clout than the group into which they were born to escaping oppression and even death. Passing and oppression go hand-in-hand. People would have no need to pass if institutional racism and other forms of discrimination did not exist. Who Can Pass? Passing necessitates that one lacks the characteristic traits most associated with a particular racial or ethnic group. Accordingly, blacks and other people of color who pass tend to be biracial or have mixed racial ancestry. While many blacks of mixed racial origin are incapable of passing for white — President Barack Obama is a case in point — others may easily be able to do so. Like Obama, actress Rashida Jones was born to a white mother and a black father, but she looks much more phenotypically white than the 44th president does. The same goes for singer Mariah Carey, born to a white mother and a father of black and Hispanic origin. Why Blacks Passed In the United States, racial minority groups such as African Americans historically passed to escape the virulent oppression that led to their enslavement, segregation, and brutalization. Being able to pass for white sometimes meant the difference between a life in captivity and a life of freedom. In fact, the slave couple William and Ellen Craft escaped from bondage in 1848 after Ellen passed as a young white planter and William as her servant. The Crafts documented their escape in the slave narrative Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom, in which William describes his wifes appearance as follows: Notwithstanding my wife being of African extraction on her mothers side, she is almost white — in fact, she is so nearly so that the tyrannical old lady to whom she first belonged became so annoyed, at finding her frequently mistaken for a child of the family, that she gave her when eleven years of age to a daughter, as a wedding present. Oftentimes, slave children light enough to pass for white were the products of miscegenation between slave owners and slave women. Ellen Craft may very well have been a relative of her mistress. However, the one-drop rule dictated that any individual with the slightest amount of African blood be deemed black. This law benefited slave owners by giving them more labor. Deeming biracial people white would have increased  the number of free men and women but done little to give the nation the economic boost that free labor did. After slaverys end, blacks continued to pass, as they faced stringent laws that limited their ability to reach their potential in society. Passing for white allowed African Americans entry into the upper echelons of society. But passing also meant that such blacks left their hometowns and family members behind to ensure that they could never come across anyone who knew their true racial origins. Passing in Popular Culture Passing has been the subject of memoirs, novels, essays, and films. Nella Larsens 1929 novel Passing is arguably the most famous work of fiction on the subject. In the novel, a fair-skinned black woman, Irene Redfield, discovers that her racially ambiguous childhood friend, Clare Kendry, has crossed the color line—leaving Chicago for New York and marrying a white bigot to advance in life socially and economically. But Clare does the unthinkable by entering black society once again and putting her new identity at risk. James Weldon Johnsons 1912 novel Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (a novel disguised as a memoir) is another well-known work of fiction about passing. The subject also emerges in Mark Twains Puddnhead Wilson (1894) and Kate Chopins 1893 short story Dà ©sirà ©es Baby. Arguably the most famous film about passing is Imitation of Life, which debuted in 1934 and was remade in 1959. The film is based on the 1933 Fannie Hurst novel of the same name. Philip Roths 2000 novel The Human Stain also addresses passing. A film adaptation of the book debuted in 2003. The novel has been linked to the real-life story of late New York Times book critic Anatole Broyard, who hid his black ancestry for years, although Roth denies any connection between The Human Stain and Broyard.   Broyards daughter, Bliss Broyard, however, did write a memoir about her fathers decision to pass for white, One Drop: My Fathers Hidden Life-A Story of Race and Family Secrets (2007). Anatole Broyards life bears some resemblance to the Harlem Renaissance writer Jean Toomer, who reportedly passed for white after penning the popular novel Cane (1923). The artist Adrian Pipers essay Passing for White, Passing for Black (1992) is another real-life account of passing. In this case, Piper embraces her blackness but describes what its like for whites to inadvertently mistake her for white and for some blacks to question her racial identity because shes fair-skinned. Do People of Color Need to Pass Today? Given that racial segregation is no longer the law of the land in the United States, people of color dont face the same barriers that historically led them to pass in search of better opportunities. That said, blackness and otherness continue to be devalued in the U.S. As a result, some people may think it beneficial to downplay or hide aspects of their racial makeup. They may not do so to land employment or live where they choose but simply to avoid the discomforts and hardships that accompany life as a person of color in America.

Who is Charles Lyell - 1023 Words

Charles Lyell Charles Lyell was a British lawyer and one the smartest geologist known in his time. He was known as the author of the Principles of Geology, which helped popularize the theories and concepts of uniformitarianism. The Principles of Geology was the first book written by Lyell and explained the changes of the earth’s surface. He used the research and information in the book as his proof to determine that the earth was over 6,000 years old. The central argument in his book was â€Å"the present is the key to the past†, this meant that to find out what happened in the past you had to look at what was happening now. It explained that changes which happened in the past, were happening in the present, and will happen in the future.†¦show more content†¦Lyell’s geological interests were ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, palaeontology, and glaciology to prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology. Although he is best known for popularizing uniformitarianism, Lyell also had interests in earthquakes such a faults, fissures, stratigraphic displacements and depressions. Lyell’s work on volcanoes was largely studied and he focused on the two named Vesuvius and Etna. He felt strongly that volcanoes built up gradually. Lyell’s most important work was in the field of Stratigraphy. From May 1828 to February 1829, Lyell traveled with Roderick Impey Murchison to the volcano district in the south of France and Italy. It was during this time that he concluded that the recent rock layers could be named and outlined according to the amount and proportion of marine shells encased within them. Lyell renamed what used to be known as the Tertiary period which had three parts which were Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary into what are now Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The change was gradually accepted worldwide. In glaciology, Lyell proposed that glaciers could be transported from erratics. He believe d that ice breaks off and floats during the melting period or global warming and carries debris with it. Lyell believed that the accumulation of the angular particles that cover the world was a deposit settled from mountain flood water. Lyell’s observational methods andShow MoreRelatedDarwins Legacy Essay1295 Words   |  6 PagesCharles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury on February 12, 1809. His father and grandfather, being admired and respected doctors, Charles grew up in a well-educated and freethinking family. At the age of eight, his mother died, leaving Charles and his five siblings with their stern and often overbearing father. A short time later, he was sent to boarding school in Shrewsbury to study Greek and Latin. 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Journal Of Quality Maintenance Engineering -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Journal Of Quality Maintenance Engineering? Answer: Introduction The automotive industry covers a wide range of organizations and companies which involve designing, development, manufacturing, marketing and selling of motor vehicles. It is considered as one of the worlds most important sector of the economy by revenue (Friedrich Schumann, 2001). However, it does not include automobile repair, filling stations and delivery of products to end-users. It basically deals with the designing and development phase of the motor vehicles. An investigation on assessing the impact of the production cost on the profitability of car manufacturing companies-A case study of Ford. Background The present study is based on the Ford Motor Company which is an American multinational automaker which offers several kinds of commercial vehicles and automobiles. The organization is operating across the world with joint venture strategies and serving millions of customers. Ford is listed on New York Stock Exchange. Jaguar and Land Rover were the UK subsidiaries of the Ford which were sold in 2008 to Tata Motor. In the current financial year's company adopted a strategy to cut its global workforce for the purpose of addressing the issue related to declining share price. However, the higher production cost is the major issue which affects the overall rate of return of the business and other related activities (Sturgeon, Van Biesebroeck Gereffi, 2008). The profitability of business relies on the cost associated with the production procedure. This indicates the lower profitability is the major issue which is being faced in the Ford. Research problem The major problem associated with the research project is the lower profitability of the business which has a direct impact on the growth and development. Every business generally suffers from lower profitability due to the increased cost of production. This tends to threaten the competitive edge of the business and accordingly, all related stakeholders cannot get the benefit out of the same (Cavalieri, Maccarrone and Pinto, 2004). For this purpose, present research aims to assess the impact of production cost on the profitability of the business. This would be effective to carry out the in-depth analysis and work upon the issues which are being faced by the Ford. It leads to create a competitive edge and retain customers for longer time span. Rationale of the study The study under consideration is based on production cost and profitability of the business. However, the profitability is the main purpose of all businesses and all activities are dedicated to it. For an automotive sector, it is crucial to have proper control over direct and indirect expenses otherwise operating cost will be increased and negative impact of the same will be seen on entire performance (Hill et. al., 2006). In case of business does not focus on the cost aspect then continuous increase in the cost ruin the overall performance. For this purpose, the current study is being conducted to assess the impact of the cost of production on profitability so as to take corrective action in case of requirement. This facilitates to create the competitive edge of the business in the marketplace because appropriate strategy will be implemented to reduce the indirect cost and raise overall rate of return. Project Aim And Objectives To assess the impact of the production cost on profitability of the car manufacturing companies-A case study of Ford Objectives The objectives of the current research project are stated as follows which are framed in accordance with the research aim. In this regard, overall research aim has been broken down into small portion to make the objectives- To understand the concept of production cost and profitability To evaluate factors affect the profitability of automotive industry To analyse the impact of production cost and profitability of Ford To suggest different ways for decreasing cost of production and increasing profitability of the business Understanding the concept of production cost and profitability Shepherd (2015, p.3-12) stated that production cost consists of all direct cost such as labour, material and other stuff actively contribute towards producing the product. Further, in economic theory production function is considered as the mathematical statement which indicates the technological relationship between the input and output process. At this juncture, necessary inputs or aspects which are applied in the production procedure are considered as the factor production. This shows that cost of production varies as per the factor of the production and its volume. For example, if Ford plans to manufacture 100 cars in the month and 200 cars in the second month then the cost in both cases will be different. On the other hand, Salonen and Deleryd, (2011, p.63) carried out a study on Cost of Poor Maintenance (CoPM) where he stated that manufacturing system must look over the CoPM concept. It facilitates to identify the deficiency and performance of the corporation over a given time span. It enables companies to plan their other production related activities in the right manner. Apart from this, Ramcharran (2001) explained that profitability plays a crucial role and serves as the motivating factor in the entire automotive sector. The rate of return of reduced with the continuous increase in the cost of production. Owing to this, it is important for the business to reduce the cost of the production by applying suitable strategies. Evaluating the factors affect the profitability of automotive industry Ramcharran (2001, p.11) asserted that profitability and auto parts suppliers have positive or significant linkage. This is because in case the firm is applying suitable and effective supply chain management strategy leads to growth and development of the business. However, Ceschin and Vezzoli (2010) argued that uncertainty related to the demand is the crucial threat for the auto parts suppliers which reduce the income of automotive industry. For this purpose, effective management of information facilitates to apply the profit-maximizing strategy. This proves to be effective in creating the competitive edge of the business. Heath Norman (2004) delineated that profitability of the business is affected from the corporate social responsibility also as it provides long-term benefits. This influences corporation to incur the cost for the short term but the long-term benefits are provided to the firm. At the same time, effective corporate governance is important to which appropriate accounting policies comply for the purpose of increasing overall benefits and serving all related stakeholders in an effectual manner. In the similar fashion, Seitz (2007) reflected that product recovery operations such as remanufacturing affect the profitability of the business to a great extent. At this juncture, closed-loop supply chain management facilitates to cater the requirement of the business whereby recycling and re-use are made possible. Analyzing the impact of production cost and profitability of Ford Blocher, Chen and Lin (2002) explained that cost of production has a direct impact on the profitability of the business because as the proportion of expense increases the volume of profitability goes down. For this purpose, management of the business ensures to promote employees so they can put their extensive efforts for maintaining better performance in the marketplace. This enables the corporation to ensure that employees are retained and they better contribute towards the growth and success of the business (Blocher, Chen Lin, 2002). Hill and et. al., (2006) explained that profitability of the business goes down with the low volume of production. It is because generally fixed cost decreases the rate of return. Owing to this, companies or automotive industry should focus on increasing volume of production to gain the advantage of huge fixed cost. Yet, the variable cost will significantly increase the volume of production. Therefore, the automotive sector should carry out the research to assess the demand for products and services in the marketplace and in the same way production can be planned. This proves to be effective in utilizing limited resources in an effectual manner. In addition to this, Cavalieri, Maccarrone Pinto (2004) strategic cost management is beneficial for the return of the company. This is because management decides in advance that how the cost will be reduced and long-term advantages will be derived. For example, manpower is replaced with the technological innovation at many places that give r ise to short-term cost but leads to the long-term profitability of the business (Seitz, 2007). Research Methodology The research methodology is the most important aspect of the research which assists the researcher to conduct the in-depth analysis and helps scholar to reach the solution of the study (Neuman, 2002). It consists of type of investigation, research approach, data collection methods and data analysis approach which are explained as follows- Type of investigation There are two types of research investigation such as qualitative and quantitative. The first aspect is qualitative one which assists scholar in conducting the in-depth analysis out of the collected information (Creswell, 2002). This derives the deep insight about the topic under consideration. On the other hand, quantitative research is useful where scholar seeks to assess the impact of one variable on another. The current study is based on assessing the impact of production cost on the profitability of the Ford. Owing to this, application of quantitative approach is more suitable to accomplish the aim. This would be effective to apply the statistical method in the analysis of the collected information. Research approach There are two types of research approaches deductive and inductive where the application of the suitable method is based on the nature or requirement of the study. The deductive approach starts by observing the general information and reaching to the specific outcome. On the other hand, inductive approach begins with the specific information and accordingly researcher moves to general information (Creswell, 2013). Owing to this, present study applies deductive research approach in which normal causes behind the reduced profitability are assessed and in the same manner, the impact of the cost of production can be assessed on the profitability of the Ford (Creswell Clark, 2007). It would be effective to reach the specific research issue. Therefore, selection of deductive research approach is justifiable. Research philosophy There are two types of research philosophies positivism and interpretivism. The interpretivism research philosophy allows the scholar to apply own knowledge and insight in completing entire study. Generally, interpretivism research philosophy is applied under the qualitative type of investigation whereas positivism research philosophy is useful for the quantitative type of investigation (Bernard, 2011). Owing to this, positivism research philosophy has been applied in the current research whereby scholar can analyse the collected information on the basis of derived outcome. However, interpretivism philosophy cannot be applied as it allows the scholar to perceive or interpret the information from the socially constructed environment (Mertens, 2014).Therefore, selection of positivism research philosophy can be justified in the right manner. Research design There are different research designs such as exploratory, explanatory and descriptive. The descriptive research design is applied where the researcher considers the population selected for the study (Cavana, Delahaye Sekaran, 2001). For this purpose, characteristic of a population which is being studied is explained. On the other hand, exploratory research is used to explore something new whereas explanatory research provides the cause and effect relationship by defining the problem in a more precise manner. However, the study under consideration is based secondary data only. Therefore, application of explanatory research philosophy is suitable as the impact of the cost of production is being assessed on the profitability of the business. Therefore, selected research design can be justified. Data collection Data collection is the procedure of collecting the primary and secondary for the purpose of meeting the specific research purpose. The present study is based on the secondary data only, owing to this primary data have not been collected (De Vaus de Vaus, 2001). However, there are different methods used for the collection of both primary and secondary data. For example, questionnaire, interview and observation methods are applied for the collection of primary data. On the other hand, secondary data are collected from the sources such as journals, books and online articles (Ritchie, 2003). Therefore, journals, books and online articles such as the annual report of Ford are used for the collection of secondary data which would be effective in assessing the impact of production cost on the profitability of the business. Data analysis There are two methods used for the data analysis procedure such as qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative method consists of thematic analysis in which themes are constructed and that is supported with the help of detailed analysis. On the other hand, the quantitative technique is based on the statistical measures such as regression, correlation and descriptive analysis(Pausas Lavorel, 2003). It assists the researcher in understanding the impact of one variable on another so as to accomplish the research aim and objectives. In this regard, the current study applied such kind of aspects correlation and descriptive to carry out in-depth analysis from the collected information. It helps in meeting aim and objectives of the research in the right manner (Holsapple Joshi, 2002). Thus, the qualitative method cannot be applied as it will not help in assessing the impact of production cost on the profitability of Ford. Findings from the secondary data analysis In order to carry out detail analysis, financials of Ford are referred to collect information about the profitability, cost of production and sales revenue generated in the last 10 financial years. At this juncture, cost of production and profitability for ten years are analysed by using descriptive, regression and correlation method. The below-mentioned graph is showing profitability and cost of production from the financial year 2007 to 2016. Table 1: Cost and profit Year Cost of production ($) Profitability (Net income) ($) 2007 142587 -2483 2008 127102 -14766 2009 98866 2712 2010 104451 6557 2011 113345 20222 2012 115693 5665 2013 12094 7155 2014 126215 3187 2015 126495 7373 2016 126584 4596 (Source: Ford Motor Company, 2009; Ford Motor Co, 2017) Table 2: Descriptive of profitability and cost of production Cost of production Profitability (Net income) Mean 109343.2 Mean 4021.8 Standard Error 11520.0593 Standard Error 2770.193 Median 120954 Median 5130.5 Mode #N/A Mode #N/A Standard Deviation 36429.626 Standard Deviation 8760.12 Sample Variance 1327117654 Sample Variance 76739704 Kurtosis 6.94167161 Kurtosis 2.907666 Skewness -2.4802463 Skewness -0.53072 Range 130493 Range 34988 Minimum 12094 Minimum -14766 Maximum 142587 Maximum 20222 Sum 1093432 Sum 40218 Count 10 Count 10 The above-mentioned table shows that average cost of production for 10 years is 109343 whereas average profitability for the same time was 4021. Further, the standard deviation for the cost of production is 36429 but for profitability, it is 8760. It indicates that both variables have significant variation and they little less correlated to each other. Table 3: Correlation between cost of production and profitability Cost of production Profitability (Net income) Cost of production 1 Profitability (Net income) -0.252325083 1 Table 4: Regression output Regression Statistics Multiple R 0.184460137 R Square 0.034025542 Adjusted R Square -0.103970809 Standard Error 9424.460653 Observations 9 Table 5: Anova df SS MS F Significance F Regression 1 21900319.99 21900319.99 0.246568418 0.63471349 Residual 7 621743210.2 88820458.61 Total 8 643643530.2 Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Lower 95% Upper 95% Lower 95.0% Upper 95.0% Intercept 9520.65963 10118.47348 0.940918573 0.378074237 -14405.728 33447.04741 -14406 33447 142587 -0.045207091 0.091041172 -0.496556561 0.634713486 -0.2604853 0.170071072 -0.2605 0.17007 With the analysis of correlation table, it has been found that cost of production and profitability of the business are negatively correlated. This shows that in case cost of production is increased that profitability will go down. It reflects the consistency of collected information. Furthermore, a value of R square 0.03402 variations of the cost of production is explained by profitability. Moreover, regression analysis reflects that 0.63 or 63% variation is brought into the profitability. In addition to this, .37 regression coefficient indicates that there is only 37% chance that result occurred only in chance or outcome of the chance. Therefore, it can be said that cost of production has the negative correlation with the profitability. Table 6: Cost and sales Year Cost of production ($) Sales ($) 2007 142587 154379 2008 127102 129165 2009 98866 105893 2010 104451 119280 2011 113345 128168 2012 115693 134252 2013 12094 146917 2014 126215 144077 2015 126495 149558 2016 126584 151800 Table 8: Descriptive of cost of production and sales Cost of production ($) Sales ($) Mean 109343.2 Mean 136348.9 Standard Error 11520.0593 Standard Error 5001.7234 Median 120954 Median 139164.5 Mode #N/A Mode #N/A Standard Deviation 36429.626 Standard Deviation 15816.838 Sample Variance 1327117654 Sample Variance 250172368 Kurtosis 6.94167161 Kurtosis -0.288579 Skewness -2.4802463 Skewness -0.724943 Range 130493 Range 48486 Minimum 12094 Minimum 105893 Maximum 142587 Maximum 154379 Sum 1093432 Sum 1363489 Count 10 Count 10 The above-mentioned table reflects that average cost of production is relatively less than the average sales of the corporation in the last 10 financial years. On the other hand, a standard deviation of the cost of production is 36429 whereas sales are deviated by 15816. Table 9: Correlation between cost of production and sales Cost of production ($) Sales ($) Cost of production ($) 1 Sales ($) 0.081752315 1 Table 10: Regression between cost of production and sales Regression Statistics Multiple R 0.08175 R Square 0.00668 Adjusted R Square -0.1175 Standard Error 16720.1 Observations 10 ANOVA df SS MS F Significance F Regression 1 15048110.2 15048110 0.05383 0.82236 Residual 8 2236503203 279562900 Total 9 2251551313 Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Lower 95% Upper 95% Lower 95.0% Upper 95.0% Intercept 132468 17544.1492 7.550539 6.6E-05 92010.9 172925 92010.9 172925 Cost of production ($) 0.03549 0.15299027 0.2320071 0.82236 -0.3173 0.38829 -0.3173 0.38829 The above-mentioned table indicates that positive correlation between the cost of production and sales. The value of correlation is 0.0817 which indicates that perfect correlation which reflects that when the cost of production will be increased then the sales turnover will be also increased. It is because when the additional material will be added as the input then sales turnover will be increased automatically. In addition to this, P value indicates that there is 82% chance that result occurs by chance. In addition to this, a value of R square .0066 and F value are showing that there exist the perfect correlation between the sales turnover of the Ford and cost of the production. Discussion of findings The collected information reflects that as the cost of the production increases the profitability of the business will be reduced. However, the continuous increase in the cost of the production facilitates to increase the sales turnover because a volume of products go hike. It represents that cost of production is the crucial aspect for an automotive sector which tends to affect the profitability and sales turnover. This would have the direct impact on the entire performance of the business. On the other hand, uncertain demand and ineffective management of the production activities leads to consuming the higher cost. This shows that effective measures can be taken by the business so as to increase the sales turnover but with the continuous hike in the sales turnover also. Recommendation According to the collected information, it can be recommended to the management of Ford that strategic cost management should be applied whereby the company can effectively increase the profitability along with a large volume of production. This proves to be effective in bringing necessary changes and creating the competitive edge in the marketplace. Furthermore, a business can easily integrate all the resources in order to accomplish long as well as short-term objectives in an effectual manner. Apart from this, a volume of production should be large so as to get the advantage of the fixed cost and reduce the overall cost of the production. Apart from this, technological innovation and integrated supply chain should be adopted which help in anticipating demand of the production and accordingly manufacture the desired product. It would be effective in reducing the cost of production to a certain extent and increase the volume of profitability of the Ford. Future scope of the research The future scope of the research is to cover another aspect such as factors affecting the profitability and aspects associated with higher cost of the business. In this regard, industry data can be referred to understand the trends in the industry and its direct impact on the cost of production. Apart from this, future research can be conducted to assess the impact of corporate governance on the profitability of the business. Limitations The study has been completed by considering the important aspects associated with the same. However, of lack of secondary data was the limitation but still, appropriate sources were referred for the collection of data. In addition to this, only secondary data was collected so the addition of primary data might increase the weight of output. Conclusion The aforementioned research concludes that profitability is affected by the cost of production because management needs to incur the huge cost of the production of final product. However, the sales turnover is increased by devoting more input in the process of production. It can also be said that cost of production is the important aspect of the automotive industry so appropriate strategies can be employed for reducing the cost. In addition to this, resources can integrate and utilized in the best possible manner to save the indirect cost. References Bernard, H. R. (2011).Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Rowman Altamira. Blocher, E., Chen, K.H. Lin, W.T. (2002). Cost management: A strategic emphasis. Cavalieri, S., Maccarrone, P. and Pinto, R. (2004). Parametric vs. neural network models for the estimation of production costs: A case study in the automotive industry.International Journal of Production Economics,91(2), pp.165-177. Cavana, R. Y., Delahaye, B. L., Sekaran, U. (2001).Applied business research: Qualitative and quantitative methods. John Wiley Sons Australia. Ceschin, F. Vezzoli, C. (2010). The role of public policy in stimulating radical environmental impact reduction in the automotive sector: the need to focus on product-service system innovation.International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management,10(2-3), pp.321-341. Creswell, J. W. (2002).Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative(pp. 146-166). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Creswell, J. W. (2013).Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications. Creswell, J. W., Clark, V. L. P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. De Vaus, D. A., de Vaus, D. (2001).Research design in social research. Sage. Ford Motor Co (2017). (Online). Available at: https://financials.morningstar.com/income-statement/is.html?t=Fregion=usaculture=en-US [Accessed on 4th October 2017]. Ford Motor Company. (2009). (PDF). Available at: https://materials.proxyvote.com/Approved/345370/20100317/AR_56886/HTML1/ford-ar2009_0077.htm [Accessed on 4th October 2017]. Friedrich, H., Schumann, S. (2001). Research for a new age of magnesium in the automotive industry.Journal of Materials Processing Technology,117(3), 276-281. Heath, J. Norman, W. (2004). 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The Structure of a Literary Work Shapes Its Meaning

Henry James in his work â€Å"The Art of Fiction† and Joseph Conrad in his â€Å"The Task of the Artist† touched upon the problem of measuring the aesthetic value of a work of fiction by certain criteria. The outstanding theoreticians of the English literature Henry James and Joseph Conrad concluded that a novelist is free to use unnumbered ways for showing the glimpses of truth to readers, but should comply with the fiction laws. The structure, sounding and any detail can have impact upon readers’ perception and shape the meaning conveyed in a novel.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Structure of a Literary Work Shapes Its Meaning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main characteristics of a good novel Discussing the relationship between the morality of novelists and their artistic sense, Henry James and Joseph Conrad concluded that writers have certain moral obligations and need to take into account the possible readers’ reaction to the form and content of their works. James explains the excessive jocularity of certain novels with the negative consequences of an old superstition concerning the admissible wickedness of the literary works. Though this outdated misconception has been left in the past, its spirit still lingers on and has impact upon stories which are perceived as only a joke (James 856). James disapproves the writers who do not attempt to enhance the gravity of their novels and do not consider the opportunities of competing with real life. Certainly, novelists cannot be compared to historians looking for the absolute truth, but they need to pay attention to collecting the evidence and presenting it to readers to appeal to their feelings, intelligence and common sense. Writers can make readers to take their works seriously by speaking authoritatively to the minds and feelings of their potential readers. Comparing novelists to historians and other scientists, Conrad stated that writers look for the truth, but use it as a source of inspiration and interpret the facts of real life in their unique ways. A novelist can manipulate the readers’ feelings, including those of their fears, ambitions and aspirations, but always counts upon their credulity and takes the advantages of it (Conrad 870). However, counting upon the credulity of readers can be rather hazardous because their individual reactions and prior experience are unpredictable. For this reason, James distinguished between bad novels appealing to the credulity of generation and good ones which can be regarded as true works of art. The main assessment criteria chosen by James for distinguishing between the two categories of novels include whether the novel is interesting and whether it produces a strong impression upon the audience (James 858). Thus, the main obligations of a good writer are to make his/her novel interesting and to impress readers.Advertising Looking for essay on comparative literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Defining a novel as writer’s â€Å"personal impression of life† (James 858), the theoretician raises the question of the techniques which should be used for intensifying this impression. The quality of a particular novel can be measured only by readers’ perceptions and impressions from it. A writer who tries to explain the methods of achieving success in literature faces serious difficulties because it is almost impossible to put into words the individual artistic sense and aesthetics. James claimed that the ways for improving the quality of fiction are innumerable because they depend upon the writer’s personal experience and talents. Still, a novelist, who can also be referred to as an artist writing a book, should learn from the experience of other writers, analyzing the tones, plot lines and composition of their novels for co mplying with the main laws of fiction. Defining the main laws of fiction Though literature cannot be compared to exact sciences, fiction has its unique laws and novelists should comply with them. Literature is all about creativity and individual temperament, but novelists should pay proper attention to the structure and sounding of their works for improving the inner working of the text and hypothesizing the possible impression produced upon readers. Conrad compared the process of creating a novel to the mechanism through which one individual temperament appeals to a great number of other temperaments (Conrad 872). The variety of possible interactions cannot be predicted. For this reason, in some cases readers can see the meanings which were not initially implied by the author in the text. In other case, the symbols can be misinterpreted and the novelist’s moral messages misunderstood. Every text is viewed in the context of not only its epoch, literature genre and writer†™s heritage and achievements, but also readers’ personal experience. Therefore, the same text can create different associations in different readers and produce different impression upon them. However, by paying special attention to the composition of the novel and its inner working, a writer can enhance chances for achieving success with the audience.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Structure of a Literary Work Shapes Its Meaning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The sincerity and gravity of a literary text are the main principles of making readers to feel, hear, see and believe a novelist. Conrad recommended other novelists to catch glimpses of truth and show them to readers with all their colors, sounds, movements, vibrations and ongoing modifications. Simmons (2009) stated that Conrad was a proponent of an objective method of withdrawing a novelist from the world of fiction for overcoming the pro blem of a telling weakness (182). Therefore, the main task of a novelist is not to tell, but to show the plot lines in their development, not expressing the judgments directly, but providing readers with an opportunity to form their own opinions. Revealing the substance of truth and competing with reality are the main laws of fiction according to the aesthetics of James and Conrad. Conrad criticized the principle of Art for Art and admitted that this sort of literature is deprived of its immortality. Thus, analyzing the works of these theoreticians, it can be stated that the main laws of fiction are to make it believable and present the realistic picture of life in its dynamics for reaching the responsive emotions of readers. The inner working and proportion of novels Though exact data and formulas cannot be applied to writing novels, writers should pay attention to the inner working of their texts and intuitively feel the inner balance and proportion of their works for intensifying the impression produced upon readers. Every word and every line of a novel can be significant for the inner working of the novel and appealing to the readers’ feelings. The inner balance of all the elements of the composition and plot of a work of literature is important, and a strong artistic feeling is required for feeling the entity of the novel and preserving it. Like an artist working on a painting can spoil it with only one unnecessary stroke, an artist working on a book can spoil it with only one unnecessary detail or character. James emphasized the importance of the inner working of a novel and referred to every new character in a novel like to a new problem in proportion of the whole text (Berland 51). Therefore, a character should be shown in its development, but at the same time to be in the harmony of the rest of the novel.Advertising Looking for essay on comparative literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The form of a literary work can have a significant impact upon the readers’ perception of the text and shape the meanings implied by the authors and created by readers on their own. Working on their books, novelists are free to use their creativity and unnumbered ways for expressing their ideas and appealing to the feelings of readers. However, on the other hand, their freedom is limited by the laws of fiction. There are no exact formulas for evoking responsive emotions in readers, but novelists should pay special attention to the inner working and proportions of their literary texts if they want to intensify the effects produced upon readers. Analyzing the theoretical recommendations of Conrad and James, it can be stated that the work of a novelist is full of challenges and riddles. Creating unique worlds in their works of fiction, novelists need to take into account not only the possible reactions and feelings of readers, but also the relationship between the elements of th e text itself which can shape the meaning. Conclusion Analyzing literary theories of James and Conrad, it can be stated that a novelist should give serious consideration to every detail of a novel, including its structure, inner working and proportion because these aspects can influence the readers’ perception and shape the meaning of the whole text. Works Cited Berland, Alwyn, Culture and Conduct in the Novels of Henry James. Cambridge University Press, 2009. Print. Conrad, Joseph. â€Å"The Task of the Artist†. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt and Meyer Howard Abrams. 8th ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. 870 – 876. Print. James, Henry. â€Å"The Art of Fiction†. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt and Meyer Howard Abrams. 8th ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. 856 – 859. Print. Simmons, Allan. Joseph Conrad in Context. Cambridge University Press, 2009. Print. This essay on The Structure of a Literary Work Shapes Its Meaning was written and submitted by user Omari Diaz to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.